Nicholas Coppernicus Essays - Copernican Revolution,

Nicholas Coppernicus Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish astronomer, best known for the astronomical theory that the sun is stationary and Earth, spinning on it's axis once daily, revolves around the sun annually. He was very intelligent and was educated at various universities. If Copernicus hadn't challenged Pltolmy's theory, it would have affected us in many ways. Space travel, satellites, and weather prediction would not be as advanced. Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473 in Torun, Poland (Wood 87). He was born into a family of merchants. Copernicus uncle, Bishop Lukasz Watzerode, made sure his nephew obtained a solid education. In 1491 Copernicus enrolled in Jagiellonian University. From there he studied liberal arts for four years but received no degree. Like many others he went to Italy to study medicine and law (Smith 1039). Before he left, his uncle appointed him a church administrator in Fronbork. He then used the money from there to pay for school. Copernicus began to study canon lay at the University of Bologna in 1497. At that time he, was living at the home of mathematics professor, Domenico Maria de Novara. Copernicus astronomical and geographical interests were greatly inspired by Novara (Westman). Around 1500 Copernicus gave speeches on astronomy to people in Rome. Later that year he gained permission to study medicine at Padua University. Copernicus, without completing his medical studies , received a doctorate in canon law from Ferrara in 1503, after which he returned to Poland to take up his administrative duties (Smith 1039). From 1503 to 1510, Copernicus stayed in his uncle's bishop palace in Lidzbark Warmiski. From there he published his first book, a Latin translation of letters on morals by a Byzantine writer. Between the times of 1507 and 1515, he completed a short astronomical book. It was not published until the 19th century (Wood 87). The main premises of the Copernican theory were that Earth rotates daily on its axis, while revolving yearly around the sun. He argued that other planets also circle the sun. His theories of planetary motion had the advantage of accounting for the daily and yearly motion of the sun and stars. It explained the apparent motion of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn and the fact that Mercury and Venus never moved more than a certain distance from the sun. His theory also stated that the sun was stationary. Another important aspect on Copernican's theory was that it allowed some kind of order of the planets, according to their periods of revolution. Unlike Pltolomy's theory, the greater the radius of the planets orbits, the greater the planet takes to make one revolution around the sun. Not many 16th century readers wanted to believe the Copernican theory. They didn't believe that there was a rotating Earth and that it spun 24 hours a day (westman). Nicolaus Copernicus passed away in 1543, but no one forgot his astronomical theory. By the 17th century, most major thinkers in England, France and Denmark were Copernicans, but natural philosophers in other European countries held strong anti-Copernican views for a least another century. Copernicus was a very intellectual man. He was one of the greatest thinkers of all time. For him to challenge Pltolmy's theory was very courageous at that time. Many people doubted his theory. It was hard for people to believe something so different to what they had known. It's incredible that Copernicus didn't let society change his thinking. If it wasn't for his intelligence and courage, we wouldn't have the knowledge to test our space technology.

In Absentia Used As An Adjective

In Absentia Used As An Adjective â€Å"In Absentia† Used As An Adjective â€Å"In Absentia† Used As An Adjective By Maeve Maddox A reader has asked me to comment on the following uses of the Latin phrase in absentia (â€Å"in his/her absence†) in The Harvard Crimson: Headline: FAS Relaxes In Absentia Rules Text: Undergraduates studying abroad in spring 2007 will be able to take their fall exams early- if their instructors approve- rather than having to lug their books overseas for in absentia exams. The reader feels that the phrase should not be used to describe a noun: This usage looks incorrect to me. M-W describes [in absentia] only as an adverb. Regardless of what it says in the dictionary, in absentia is often used as a qualifier in academic and legal contexts: Fallows intended his in  absentia  program as a vehicle for reaching adults, not as  an option for the conventional, youthful collegiate audience. All degree requirements must be completed or in progress before the student can begin the in absentia graduation process. The in absentia registration fee is $25. If a defendant takes off during the pretrial phase, however, he may be able to elude an  in absentia conviction. In general usage, there’s no reason to use in absentia as anything but an adverb phrase: The degree was conferred upon the deployed soldier in absentia. The man was condemned in absentia. The new program chairman was elected in absentia. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:30 Synonyms for â€Å"Meeting†Social vs. Societal20 Slang Terms for Law Enforcement Personnel

IKEA Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

IKEA - Research Paper Example is native land Smaland, south Sweden).IKEA is known for it’s up to date architectural designs that fit various kinds of furniture and appliances, and has got interior design work that is most of the time related with an eco-friendly ease (Baxter, Landry, 2010). Apart from this IKEA is famous for its keenness to cost control, constant product development and operational details, corporate features which permitted IKEA to review its prices downwards by an average of 2 or 3 percent over the ten years to 2010 during an era of global development. As of the beginning of 2014, IKEA proudly owns and operates 349 stores in over 43 countries. In financial year 2010, IKEA sold over US$23.1 billion worth of goods, a sum that signified a 7.7% increase over 2009.IKEA’s website contains over 12,000 products and is the closest depiction of the complete IKEA range. Apart from that there were over 470 million guests to IKEA’s websites from the year September 2007 to September 2008.IKEA spends just about 1% of the world’s supply of wood, making it one of the biggest users of wood as far as retail sector is concerned(Baxter, Landry, 2010). IKEA was formed in 1943, mainly as mail-order sales company. IKEA started selling furniture about five years afterwards. The very first store opened its doors to the public in 1958 at Smaland whereas the first stores outside of Sweden opened their doors in Denmark (1969) and Norway (1963).The stores later on extended to other European parts in the 1970s with the very first store outside of Scandinavia being opened in Switzerland in 1973 and Germany branch opened later in 1974. IKEA’s current products includes furniture, decorative and linen accessories are typified by some exceptional features, for instance, IKEA’s 2013 furniture fabrics are very illustrious with its unique designs;ethnic,romantic,pop and contemporary. Thus IKEA has produced interesting designs which are bound to keep people talking for months. In 2013, IKEA offered

The Drama Of The Love Triangle In Literature Essay - 1

The Drama Of The Love Triangle In Literature - Essay Example The door goes unanswered after they rang the doorbell for several times, but as they were about to leave, they heard footsteps from the inside of the house. The door opened and there stood Liz wearing her chequered black and white pajama and a cheeky smile, which was so unusual for her. After exchanging pleasantries, they entered the house, and this time Kelvin’s attempt to hold Linda’s hand was not rejected. They walked hand in hand up to the living room and from the look on Liz’s face, the gesture was not welcome. Kelvin having known Liz for a long time let off Linda’s hand. Liz rushed to the kitchen to fetch a drink for them and Kelvin could not help staring at the rich bosom that Liz displayed when she was rising from her seat to go to the kitchen. When he realized he was being watched, he tried to look the other way, but Linda had already noticed and she mumbled something that was not coherent. Liz returned with a bottle of grape juice, which they proceeded to take as they chatted over general things. When it was time to leave, Kelvin explained to Liz their reason for coming and signaled Linda to give Liz the story as she had narrated to him before they left college premises earlier in the day. Linda gave her side of the story as she had given it to Kelvin, although this time she seemed more emotional, which at one point moved Liz to tears. Kelvin, who was used to seeing women cry, started to get irritated when he saw the discussion was getting emotional, so he excused himself to the washroom. After leaving, the two women looked at each other with te ary eyes, and a sense of connection between them attracted them to each other; however, to Linda there was something about Liz that made her suspicious, but since her newfound friend Kelvin had told her that she is a God fearing person, she had no reason to worry.

Organizational Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Organizational Culture - Essay Example For example, there are differences between Chinese customers’ role in influencing organizational culture as compared to Canadian customers. This section seeks to address the differences and the corresponding organizational cultures of the two business environments. The entire Chinese market is customer influenced and organizational cultures, local and foreign have to adapt to the customers’ perspective of culture (Cameron and Quinn, 2011). Organizations have two explicit environments that they must be aware of and be ready to manage subsequently. Firstly, the internal environment involves the manner in which the organization is run and how processes are approached from a routinely perspective rather from policy perspective (Campbell and GÃ ¶ritz, 2014). The development of routines in leadership, process control, performance appraisals, and development of competitive strategies define the characteristics of the organization and the overall defining culture. Secondly, the external environment comprises mainly of shareholders whose role is to provide financial support through the acquisition of organizational stakes. The investors influence organizational culture in terms of their expectations and contribution to the organization in both financial and intelligence levels (Dalkir, 2011). All for-profit and non-profit organizations have different tools for appraising performance. Performance is an organizational measurement tool for success and involves participation of management and other stakeholders such as employees. In this case, the coordination among stakeholders, the rewarding systems, the disciplinary measures, and promotional strategies defines the performance dimension of organizational culture (Flamholtz & Randle,

Intrinsic And Extrinsic Rewards Defined Business Essay

Intrinsic And Extrinsic Rewards Defined Business Essay This chapter will review the academic literature required to study the research topic. The key areas for discussion are on intrinsic extrinsic rewards, rewards schemes strategies and theories on motivation. 2.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic rewards defined Rewards can be treated as some offerings in addition to pay. Traditional reward systems were based on positions and longevities. But now a days profit sharing, gain sharing and stock option plans are being practiced as a reward. Modern reward systems include stock grants, certificate of appreciation, even personal thank you notes (Nelson, 1994). According to Walker et al (1979), rewards are classified into extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards include basic salary and allowances which is needed to fulfill psychological and safety needs. Intrinsic rewards help individuals feelings and perceptions about the job situation which is needed to fulfill self-esteem, competence, self-actualization etc. There are several financial rewards commonly found in sales organizations are salary and commission, bonus, fringe benefits, stock options, retirement plan which fulfills both extrinsic and intrinsic needs of employees. Coli (1997), describes classification of reward and recognition under three types of rewards. They are monetary, awards and developmental rewards. Monetary rewards includes individual bonus for project completion, stock grants, skill-based pay, gain sharing, targeted total cash, special individual increase, non-discretionary incentives for the beginning of the project etc. According to Lyons Ora (2002), financial performance includes basic salary, variable pay, other compensations, perquisites and benefits. Different individuals have different perceptions of rewards. For instance, some individuals may consider cash as a sufficient and adequate reward for their efforts at work, while others may consider holidays and material incentives (such as a car) as more rewarding in exchange for their work. Others still, may consider a shift in the treatment that they get from their leaders to be a more rewarding experience. For instance, some employees consider being recognized by their leader as more rewarding than financial incentives (La Belle, 2005). 2.1.1 What are Financial Rewards? Zammit (2004), best described financial rewards. A reward strategy is an integrated approach to reward employees according to their contribution, skill and competence and their market worth. The author classified four types of financial reward. Basic salary Performance related pay Allowances Other financial rewards The basic salary is determined according to management position, standard of living, job market, qualification of the receivers. The dimensions of performance consist of bonuses, commissions and special skills. Allowances are most commonly provided for substitution, workstation transfer and transportation, free or discounted benefits, cultural or religious holidays, telecommunications. Other financial rewards are mostly practiced by offering stock options, pension schemes. 2.2 Reward strategy Reward strategies provide answers to two basic questions for an organization Where do we want our reward practices to be in a few years time? and How do we intend to get there?. Therefore, they deal with both ends and means. Ends they describe a vision of what reward processes will look like in a few years time and means on the expectation of how the vision will be realized. 2.2.1 Reward strategy defined Reward strategy is ultimately a way of thinking that you can apply to any reward issue arising in your organization, to see how you can create value from it (Brown, 2001). Reward strategy is a declaration of intent which defines what the organization wants to do in the longer term to develop and implement reward policies, practices and processes which will further the achievement of its business goals and meet the needs of its stakeholders. It provides a sense of purpose and direction and a framework for developing reward policies, practices and process. It is based on an understanding of the needs of the organization and its employees and how they can best be satisfied. It is also concerned with developing the values of the organization on how people should be rewarded and formulating guiding principles which will ensure that these values are enacted. Reward strategy is underpinned by a reward philosophy which expresses what the organization believes should be the basis upon which people are valued and rewarded. Reward philosophies are often articulated as guiding principles. 2.2.2 The content of reward strategy Reward strategy may be a broad-brush affair simply indicating the general direction in which it is thought reward management should go. Additionally or alternatively, reward strategy may set out a list of specific intentions dealing with particular aspects of reward management. Broad-brush reward strategy (Armstrong (2007), pg. 635) A broad-brush reward strategy may commit the organization to the pursuit of a total rewards policy. The basic aim might be to achieve an appropriate balance between financial and non-financial rewards. A further aim could be to use other approaches to the development of the employment relationship and the work environment which will enhance commitment and engagement and provide more opportunities for the contribution of people to be valued and recognized. Examples of other broad strategic aims include: 1. Introducing a more integrated approach to reward management encouraging continuous personal development and spelling out career opportunities; 2. Developing a more flexible approach to reward which includes the reduction of artificial barriers as a result of over-emphasis on grading and promotion; 3. Generally rewarding people according to their contribution; 4. Supporting the development of a performance culture and building levels of competence 5. Clarifying what behaviors will be rewarded and why. 2.2.3 Specific reward initiatives As Cox and Purcell (1998) write: The real benefit in reward strategies lies in complex linkages with other human resource management policies and practices. The selection of reward initiatives and the priorities attached to them will be based on an analysis of the present circumstances of the organization and an assessment of the needs of the business and its employees. The following are examples of possible specific reward initiatives, one or more of which might feature in a reward strategy: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The replacement of present methods of contingent pay with a pay for contribution scheme; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The introduction of a new grade and pay structure, e.g. a broad-graded or career family structure; 2.2.4 Developing reward strategy The formulation of reward strategy can be described as a process for developing and defining a sense of direction. The main phases are: 1. The diagnosis phase, when reward goals are agreed, current policies and practices assessed against them, options for improvement considered and any changes agreed. 2. The detailed design phase when improvements and changes are detailed and any changes tested (pilot testing is important). 3. The final testing and preparation phase. 4. The implementation phase, followed by ongoing review and modification. 2.2.5 Implementing reward strategy The aim of implementation is to make the reward strategy an operating reality by building the capacity of the organization to put into practice the proposals worked out in the development stage. As Armstrong and Brown (2007) stress: It is always essential to design with implementation in mind. Purcell (1999), believes that the focus of strategy should be on implementation. As explained by Thompson and Strickland (1990): Implementation entails converting the strategic plan into action and then into results. An effective reward strategy is a living process and, in the words of Rosabeth Moss Kanter (1984), an action vehicle, formulation is easy; implementation is hard. A pragmatic approach is required whats good is what works. Implementing reward strategy is much more about process than design how it will be done rather than what will be done. The principles of procedural and distributive justice apply. People must feel that the procedures used to determine their grades, pay level and pay progression are fair, equitable, applied consistently and transparent. They must also feel that the awards distributed to them are just in terms of their contribution and value to the organization. 2.3 Rewards management strategy defined Reward management is concerned with the formulation and implementation of strategies and policies in order to reward people fairly, equitably and consistently in accordance with their value to the organization. As Duncan Brown (2001) emphasizes, the alignment of your reward practices with employee values and needs is every bit as important as alignment with business goals, and critical to the realization of the latter. It deals with the development of reward strategies and the design, implementation and maintenance of reward systems (reward processes, practices and procedures) which aim to meet the needs of both the organization and its stakeholders. Rewards can be regarded as the fundamental expression of the employment relationship. 2.3.1 The aims of reward management Armstrong and Brown (2006), pg.33, identifies the following; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reward people according to what the organization values and wants to pay for. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reward people for the value they create. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reward the right things to convey the right message about what is important in terms of behaviors and outcomes. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Develop a performance culture. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Motivate people and obtain their commitment and engagement. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Help to attract and retain the high quality people the organization needs. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Develop a positive employment relationship and psychological contract. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Align reward practices with both business goals and employee values. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Operate fairly people feel that they are treated justly in accordance with what is due to them because of their value to the organization (the felt-fair principle of Eliot Jacques (1961)). The fundamentals of reward management Recognizing the importance of the part played by line managers in implementing reward strategy and the need to ensure that they are committed and have the necessary skills; Paying close and continuous attention to communicating with employees and involving them in the development as well as the implementation of reward strategy; Being absolutely clear about the objectives of the strategy and resolute about evaluating its effectiveness. The following Reward strategies theories can be applied when developing a reward scheme in an organization. Pay people right (Zingheim and Schuster) Zingheim and Schuster (2000) have laid down the following six principles for paying people right: 1. Create a positive and natural reward experience. 2. Align rewards with business goals to achieve a win-win partnership. 3. Extend peoples line of sight between effort and outcome, motivating smart working over simply expending extra effort. 4. Integrate reward with strategic aims and the kind of contribution desired. 5. Reward individual ongoing (input) value to the organization with base pay. 6. Reward results (outputs) with variable pay. Dynamic pay (Flannery, Hofrichter and Platten) Flannery, Hofrichter and Platten (1996) expounded the concept of dynamic pay and suggested that the nine principles that support a successful pay strategy are: 1. Align compensation with the organizations culture, values and strategic business goals. 2. Link compensation to the other changes. 3. Time the compensation programme to best support other change initiatives. 4. Integrate pay with other people processes. 5. Democratize the pay process. 6. Demystify compensation. 7. Measure results. 8. Refine. Refine again. Refine some more. 9. Be selective. Dont take to heart everything you hear or read about pay. 2.3.3 Components of an effective reward strategy An effective strategy is one in which there are clearly defined goals and a well-defined link to business objectives; well-designed pay and reward programmes, tailored to the needs of the organization and its people, and consistent and integrated with one another; and effective and supportive HR and reward processes in place. Brown (2001) has suggested that effective reward strategies have three components: 1. They have to have clearly defined goals and a well-defined link to business objectives. Recognize the value of everyone who is making an effective contribution, not just the exceptional performers. Allow a reasonable degree of flexibility in the operation of reward processes and in the choice of benefits by employees. Devolve more responsibility for reward decisions to line managers. 2. There have to be well-designed pay and reward programmes, tailored to the needs of the organization and its people, and consistent and integrated with one another. 3. Perhaps most important and most neglected, there needs to be effective and supportive HR and reward processes in place. Armstrong and Brown (2006), have further suggested the following approach to reward strategy. This has the following characteristics: Appreciating that a good strategy is one that works and therefore focusing on implementation programmes; Planning with implementation in mind recognizing during the design process that plans have to be converted into reality and taking steps to anticipate the problems involved; Aligning reward strategies with the business and HR strategies; Ensuring that reward strategy fits the culture and characteristics of the organization, meets business needs and takes account of individual needs and preferences; Being aware of good practice elsewhere but not being seduced by the notion that it is best practice, i.e. universally applicable and easily replicated; Paying more attention to using strategic reward initiatives to support the engagement and commitment of people so that they are motivated and productive, rather than focusing on the mechanics of new reward fads; Bearing in mind that the development and implementation of reward strategy is an evolutionary process it is about doing things better at a manageable pace rather than extraordinary new developments; Providing flexibility within a framework, i.e. developing a flexible approach to the reward of different people but always within a framework that provides for consistent treatment; Appreciating that implementing reward strategy will require a comprehensive change management programme. 2.4 What is Motivation? Many contemporary authors have defined the concept of motivation as; the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction (Kreitner, 1995); a tendency to behave in a purposive method to achieve specific, unmet desires (Buford, Bedeian, Lindner, 1995); an inner force to gratify an unsatisfied need (Higgins, 1994); and the will to accomplish (Bedeian, 1993). In this study, motivation is operationally defined as the inner force that drives individuals to achieve personal and organizational goals. Understanding what motivates employees is one of the key challenges for managers. Although it is not possible directly to motivate others, it is nonetheless important to know how to influence what others are motivated to do, with the overall aim of having employees identify their own welfare with that of the organization (Bruce and Pepitone, 1999). While motivation is determined by both monetary non-monetary factors, money has come to play an overly important role in our thinking about the causes of behavior. In most companies, very limited time effort are spent on considering non-monetary sources of motivation (Gratton, 2004). For organizations to address these expectations an understanding of employee motivation is required (Beer et al., 1984). Carnegie (1975) emphasizes the human aspects of management. They postulate that as it is people who make a business succeed or fail it is the organizations chief responsibility to motivate their people so that they will assure success. The author believes that each human being has the potential for creativity, contribution and achievement of business goals. Therefore, the infinite question is how organizations reach this potential and how they stimulate creativity and foster in their people the desire to succeed and to achieve self-fulfillment through their work. The common theme of all the above authors is the belief that people need to be respected and treated as precious human capital, more essential to an organizations effectiveness than its financial capital. Organizations are under constant pressure to enhance and improve their performance and are realizing that an interdependent relationship exists between organizational performance and employee performance. In the following section the focus will be on the motivational theories and the impact that these theories have on enhancing employee performance. 2.5 Theories on motivation The process of motivation as described below is broadly based on a number of motivation theories that attempt to explain in more detail what it means. Some of the distinctive theories will be discussed below. 2.5.1. Needs (content) theory The basis of this theory is the belief that an unsatisfied need creates tension and disequilibrium. To restore the balance a goal is identified that will satisfy the need and a behavior pathway is selected that will lead to the achievement of the goal. All behavior is therefore motivated by unsatisfied needs. The best-known contributor to needs theory is Maslow, A (1954). He formulated the concept of a hierarchy of needs, which start from the fundamental physiological needs and lead through safety, social and esteem needs to the need for self-fulfillment, the highest need of all. He said that man is a wanting animal; only an unsatisfied need can motivate behavior, and the dominant need is the prime motivator of behavior. This is the best-known theory of needs, but it has never been verified by empirical research. 2.5.2. Herzbergs two-factor theory Herzbergs two-factor model theory states that the factors giving rise to job satisfaction (and motivation) are distinct from the factors that lead to job dissatisfaction. It is sometimes called the motivation-hygiene theory. There are two groups of factors. The first consists of the satisfiers or motivators, which are intrinsic to the job. These include achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility and growth. The second group comprises what Herzberg calls the dissatisfaction avoidance or hygiene factors, which are extrinsic to the job and include pay, company policy and administration, personal relations, status and security. These cannot create satisfaction but, unless preventive action is taken, they can cause dissatisfaction. He also noted that any feeling of satisfaction resulting from pay increases was likely to be short-lived compared with the long-lasting satisfaction from the work itself. One of the key conclusions derived from the research is therefore that pay is not a motivator, except in the short term, although unfair payment systems can lead to demotivation. Herzbergs two-factor model draws attention to the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators, and his contention that the satisfaction resulting from pay increases does not persist has some face validity. But his research and the conclusions he reached have been attacked first because, it is asserted, the original research is flawed and fails to support the contention that pay is not a motivator, and secondly because no attempt was made to measure the relationship between satisfaction and performance. As Guest, D (1992) has written: Many managers knowledge of motivation has not advanced beyond Herzberg and his generation. This is unfortunate. Their theories are now over thirty years old. Extensive research has shown that as general theories of motivation the theories of Herzberg and Maslow are wrong. They have been replaced by more relevant approaches. 2.5.3. Equity theory To explain how employees judge the fairness of rewards received in proportion to resources invested for completing a task by assessing ones on investment-reward ratio Equity theory (John Stacey Adams) is used, This theory is compared against the ratio of another colleague holding a similar position (McShane et al.2000 pg 79). A comparison can be made using the formula below: Outcomes (Individual) = Outcomes (Other) Inputs (Individual) Inputs (Other) Above formula can be explained, that employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they put in to a job and the outcomes they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others. The belief in equity theory is that people value fair treatment which causes them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the relationships of their co-workers and the organization. The main concern however is payment; this therefore is the cause of equality or inequalty in most cases. In any position within the organization, an employee wants to feel that their contributions and work performance are being rewarded with their pay. According to equity theory, if an employee feels under-paid then it will result in the employee feeling hostile towards the organization and perhaps their co-workers, which may result the employee not performing well at work anymore. But Adams Equity Theory is very much more complex sophisticated motivational model, in this model more than merely assessing effort put in (inputs) and rewards (outputs). Equity Theory gives prominence to an additional perspective of comparison, were employees compare themselves with others (people who consider in a similar position). Referent others are used to describe the reference points or people with whom we compare our own situation, which is the Highlight part of the theory. The three primary assumptions applied to most business applications of Equity Theory can be summarized as follows: Equity norm- Where Employees expect a fair return for what they contribute in their jobs. Social comparison- Employees determine what their equitable return should be after comparing their inputs and outcomes with those of their coworkers. Cognitive distortion Employees who perceive themselves as being in an inequitable situation will seek to reduce the inequity either by distorting inputs and/or outcomes in their own minds, by directly altering inputs and/or outputs, or by leaving the organization. 2.5.4. Vrooms expectancy theory Vrooms expectancy theory basically separates effort (which arises from motivation), performance, and outcomes. Its assumption is that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives. Vroom realized that an employees performance is based on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. He stated that effort, performance and motivation are linked in a persons motivation. He uses the variables Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence to account for this. Expectancy  is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e. if I work harder then this will be better. This is affected by such things as: Having the right resources available (e.g. raw materials, time) Having the right skills to do the job Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g. supervisor support, or correct information on the job) Instrumentality  is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be received. The degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the second level outcome. (i.e. if I do a good job, there is something in it for me.) This is affected by such things as: Clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes e.g. the rules of the reward game Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome Valence  is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome. For the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. For example, if someone is mainly motivated by money, he or she might not value offers of additional time off. The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy) and performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy). E>P expectancy:  our assessment of the probability that our efforts will lead to the required performance level. P>O expectancy:  our assessment of the probability that our successful performance will lead to certain outcomes. Crucially, Vrooms expectancy theory works on  Perceptions   so even if an employer thinks they have provided everything appropriate for motivation, and even if this works with most people in that organization, it doesnt mean that someone wont perceive that it doesnt work for them. Thus, Vrooms expectancy theory of motivation is not about self-interest in rewards but about the associations people make towards expected outcomes and the contribution they feel they can make towards those outcomes. 2.6 Theoretical framework 2.6.1 Relationship between Financial Rewards and Performance Financial rewards practiced by an organization play an important role in motivating employees to perform depending on the type of business its involved in and require their employees to be engaged in.. Therefore, organizations financial performance is ultimately dependent on the employees performance. It is also considered that improper reward practices may result below average financial performance of organizations. Most agree that reward practices act as motivators that shape the employees behaviors. According to prior researches, it is commonly believed that if financial rewards are effectively used, employees are motivated to perform high and that ultimately results financial performance. Financial performance is improved if there is a carefully crafted reward practice (Allen Helms; 2001). It is difficult to relate financial reward with organizational financial performance (Kerr, 1999). Reward must positively influence performance (Nelson, 1994). Regardless to team-based reward, individual reward is still important as individuals could see that their activities are making difference to the organization. According to Zingheim Schuster (2000), a few businesses design their reward system for the optimization of company performance. Basic salary and incentives matches competitive practice and emphasizes performance results. Incentive plans are often used in employment settings to encourage superior performance. While such inducements are found to have positive effects on job performance concerns have been raised over rewards influence on task interest and creativity. (Bartol Locke, 2000; Fay Thompson, 2001) In a research, it is found that employees stock ownership plans and profit sharing are widely used reward practice (Lawler et all, 1995). Hale (1998) and Lawler (1981, 1987) recognized rewards have critical importance as a means of employee motivation. Organizations and manager acknowledge reward and recognition consistently as a motivator of individual employees. Employees understandings and satisfactions with reward system lead to specific behaviors and actions, finally results operational and financial results (Cacioppe, 1999). According to Saxby (2007), it is an avoidable mistake of management for not rewarding employees for a well done job. Tangible rewards are nicer and more meaningful regarding employee motivation rather than intangible praising and acknowledgement. Contradiction to the theory, according to LaBelle (2005) in some cases managers may practice rewards for some behaviors which is unexpected or unproductive. Sometimes worker may misunderstand the objective of getting reward. Some cases of mismatches are discussed below: Safety vs. Productivity: Sometimes, employees do not understand that whether heshe is receiving reward for working safely or for the firms productivity or for the quality of services rendered. 2.6.2 Relationship between Financial Rewards, Motivation and Performance Financial incentives and rewards can motivate. People need money and therefore want money. It can motivate but it is not the only motivator. It has been suggested by Wallace, M.J and Szilagyi, L (1982) that money can serve the following reward functions: It can act as a goal that people generally strive for although to different degrees. It can act as an instrument that provides valued outcomes. It can be a symbol that indicates the recipients value to the organization. It can act as a general reinforce because it is associated with valued rewards so often that it takes on reward value itself. But doubts have been cast on the effectiveness of money as a motivator by Herzberg et al (1957). As noted, he claimed that, while the lack of it may cause dissatisfaction, money does not result in lasting satisfaction. There is something in this, especially for people on fixed salaries or rates of pay who do not benefit directly from an incentive scheme. They may feel good when they get an increase, as, apart from the extra money, it is highly effective ways of making people believe they are valued. But the feeling of euphoria can rapidly die away. However, it must be re-emphasized that different people have different needs, and Herzbergs two-factor theory has not been validated. Some will be much more motivated by money than others. What cannot be assumed is that money motivates everyone in the same way and to the same extent. But do financial incentives motivate people? The answer, according to Kohn, A (1993) is absolutely not. He challenges what he calls the behaviourist dogma about money and motivation. And he claims that no controlled scientific study has ever found a long term enhancement of the quality of work as a result of any reward system. When you look at how people are motivated, claims Kohn, It becomes disturbingly clear that the more you use rewards to motivate people, the more they tend to lose interest in whatever they had to do to get the rewards. He quotes research that has repeatedly shown that the more salient or reinforcing the reward is, the more it erodes intrinsic interest and points out that various devices can be used to get people to do something, but that is a far cry from making people want to do something. Pfeffer, J (1998) also contends that: People do work

Types of Societies :: essays research papers

Types of Societies   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  HUNTING AND GATHERING SOCIETIES are the simplest types of societies in which people rely on readily available vegetation and hunted game for subsistence. Only a few people can be supported in any given area in such subsistence societies. Hence they usually have no more than 40 members or so, must be nomadic, and have little or no division of labor. All societies began as hunting and gathering societies. These societies were still common until a few hundred years ago. Today only a few remain, including pygmies in central Africa and aborigines in Australia. Most of the rest have had their territory overrun by other forms of society. Hunter-gatherer societies also tend to have non-hierarchical social structures. There is rarely surplus food, and since they are nomadic little ability to store any surplus. Thus full-time leaders, bureaucrats, or artisans are rarely supported by hunter-gathering societies. Hunting and gathering society consumes a great deal of time, ene rgy, and thought, collecting and hunting for food. Most of these societies today generally live in marginal areas where resources are scarce, so life for the hunter and gatherer seems more oriented toward mere survival. Life expectancy is also very low compared to the post industrial society. Technology is minimal in the hunting and gathering society, which again relates back to the need for expending time and energy finding food. Technology in medicine is also primitive for hunters and gatherers. Equality is great and social stratification is low, opposed to the post-industrial society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  PASTORAL SOCIETIES are societies in which animals are domesticated and raised for food in pastures. Care of animals in the pastoral society still consumes a large portion of time for most of its members. Pastoral societies are also at risk of animal diseases or droughts. These societies do not have the technologies that post-industrial societies have to guard against food shortage. Pastoral society does not afford as much time for leisure as does the post-industrial society. This society does not have the technologies that post-industrial societies have to guard against food shortage. The pastorals are nomadic, and sometimes endure harsh and even dangerous environments in their journeys. Medical technology is also low, so physical pain and death are more common than in post-industrial society. Pastoral societies tended to develop in arid regions where there was insufficient rainfall to raise crops on the land. Pastoral societies were usually nomadic, moving on to a new area after the animals had exhausted the food supply in each pasture.

Genetic Testing Controversies

Genetic Testing Controversies 1-12-11 Biology Genetic Testing, also known as DNA-based tests, is a new method of testing for genetic diseases or disorders. In the test the DNA molecule is examined and other tests include microscopic examination of chromosomes, for stained or fluorescent chromosomes. Genetic tests are used for carrier screening, newborn screening, identity testing, prenatal diagnostic testing, and prediction of disorders later in life such as Huntington’s or Alzheimer’s disease etc. Human Genome Project) Controversies today that genetic testing today faces is with the privacy, consents, equity and discrimination. The privacy of the information that is found may not be confidential between the patient and the doctor it may also be revealed to other people that are not involved in the issue. The controversies with consent are that should the insurance companies be allowed to have the information of medical records and family histories before granting permi ssion to anything. (Friesen, Tim.The Genetic Testing Controversy). The costs of some of these genetic tests are very expensive, some costing more than $1000. Another controversy is related with discrimination to the people shown by insurance companies, where they are discriminating on the people by the information which is received to them by genetic tests. Another example is where a woman who had applied to become an adoptive parent was denied due to a family history of Huntington’s disease which also made her susceptible to the disease. Friesen, Tim. The Genetic Testing Controversy) An advantage of Genetic testing is that it gives information about any disease or disorders a person may have and treat that person immediately for a cure. Another advantage is that these tests help to live a risk free life from the beginning, for example- Genetic testing are done on new born babies, which helps to identify any disorders from the beginning so treatment can be given immediately. Benefits of genetic testing) Another advantage of genetic testing is that there are fewer checkups and visits to the doctor if there is a history of a disease in a family. Another advantage is that if a person is genetically tested and the results are positive, they get to make â€Å"informed decisions† in their life. (Benefits of Gene Testing. National Cancer Institute) A disadvantage of genetic testing is that if a person is positive for a disease which cannot be cured completely, is still in a risk. Related essay: â€Å"Advantages and Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering†For example breast and ovarian cancers, you cannot get rid of each and every breast or ovary related cells. Even after the surgery, the risk is still there. Another disadvantage is many people after receiving their test results and testing positive for a disease, leads to depression, anxiety or anger for most people, mostly women in these cases. Another disadvantage of genetic testing is many people face discrimination in getting insurance, or employment due to the results of that person’s genetic test. Citation Pictures http://www. beltina. org/pics/genetic_testing. jpg

10 Zinc Facts (Atomic Number 30 or Zn)

10 Zinc Facts (Atomic Number 30 or Zn) Zinc is a blue-gray metallic element, sometimes called spelter. You come in contact with this metal every day, and not only that, your body needs it to survive. Fast Facts: Zinc Element Name: ZincElement Symbol: ZnAtomic Number: 30Appearance: Silver-gray metalGroup: Group 12 (transition metal)Period: Period 4Discovery: Indian metallurgists before 1000 BCEFun Fact: Zinc salts burn blue-green in a flame. Heres a collection of 10 interesting facts about the element zinc: Zinc has the element symbol Zn and atomic number 30, making it a transition metal and the first element in Group 12 of the periodic table. Sometimes zinc is considered to be a post-transition metal.The element name is believed to come from the  German word zinke, which means pointed. This is likely a reference to the pointed zinc crystals that form after zinc is smelted.  Paracelsus, a Swiss-born, German Renaissance physician, alchemist, and astrologer, is credited with giving zinc its name. Andreas Marggraf is credited with isolating the element zinc in 1746, by heating  calamine ore and carbon together in a closed vessel, however, English metallurgist  William Champion had actually patented his process for isolating zinc several years earlier. While Champion may have been the first to isolate zinc, zinc smelting had been in practice in India since the 9th century BC. According to the International Zinc Association (ITA), zinc was recognized as a unique substance in India by 1374 and is believed to have been discovered by Indian metallurgists before 1000 BCE. Although zinc was used by the ancient Greeks and Romans, it was not as common as iron or copper, probably because the element boils away prior to reaching the temperature required to extract it from ore. However, artifacts do exist proving its early use, including a sheet of Athenian zinc, dating back to 300 B.C. Because zinc is often found with copper, the metals use was more common as an alloy rather than as a pure element.Zinc is an essential mineral for human health. It is the second-most abundant metal in the body, after iron. The mineral is important for immune function, white blood cell formation, egg fertilization, cell division, and a host of other enzymatic reactions. Zinc deficiency may also be a causal factor in age-related vision deterioration. Foods rich in zinc include lean meat and seafood. Oysters are particularly rich in zinc.While its important to get enough zinc, too much can cause problems. Too much zinc can suppress the absorption of iron and copper. Ingesting c oins containing zinc has been known to cause death, as the metal reacts with gastric juice, corroding the gastrointestinal tract and producing zinc intoxication. One noteworthy side effect of excessive zinc exposure is a permanent loss of smell and/or taste. The FDA has issued warnings regarding zinc nasal sprays and swabs. Problems from excessive ingestion of zinc lozenges or from industrial exposure to zinc have also been reported. Zinc has many uses. It is the fourth-most common metal for industry, after iron, aluminum, and copper. Of the 12 million tons of the metal produced annually, about half goes to galvanization. Brass and bronze production account for another 17% of zincs usage. Zinc, its oxide, and other compounds are found in batteries, sunscreen, paints, and other products.Although galvanization is used to protect metals against corrosion, zinc actually does tarnish in air. The product is a layer of zinc carbonate, which inhibits further degradation, thus protecting the metal beneath it.Zinc forms several important alloys. Foremost among these is brass, an alloy of copper and zinc.Almost all mined zinc (95%) comes from zinc sulfide ore. Zinc is easily recycled and about 30% of the zinc produced annually is recycled metal.Zinc is the 24th-most abundant element in the Earths crust. Sources Bennett, Daniel R. M. D.; Baird, Curtis J. M.D.; Chan, Kwok-Ming; Crookes, Peter F.; Bremner, Cedric G.; Gottlieb, Michael M.; Naritoku, Wesley Y. M.D. (1997). Zinc Toxicity Following Massive Coin Ingestion. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 18 (2): 148–153. doi:10.1097/00000433-199706000-00008Cotton, F. Albert; Wilkinson, Geoffrey; Murillo, Carlos A.; Bochmann, Manfred (1999). Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (6th ed.). New York: John Wiley Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-19957-5.Emsley, John (2001). Zinc. Natures Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 499–505. ISBN 0-19-850340-7.Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4.Heiserman, David L. (1992). Element 30: Zinc. Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds. New York: TAB Books. ISBN 0-8306-3018-X.

Free Essays on The Turn Of A Screw

This novel was, surprisingly, in a way that was not all too completely unaware to me – for I could discern my own thoughts concerning the book – interesting. The intensely complex and intricate (if not confusing!) sentences, upon first thought, made me expect an experience of complete, utter, and total confusion; however, they served not only to keep my interest in the novel – for I had to concentrate to grasp the full, rich meaning of his thoughts – but also to create in me a sense of enjoyment, that of being enriched with the experiences of the main character so that my life and that character's became inseparable, only it occurred not only with the main character, but with the entire plot at once – all characters, all scenes (to which I shall come late), all conversations... everything. I have never seen a man so able to express so much in one sentence, and still be able to have the reader follow his thoughts throughout the entire process. Henr y James was a master of expression and grammar. His ability to form a complex, yet coherent sentence did nothing but add to the quality of the novel. The characters alone added to the quality of the novel. It is not so much as they were entirely believable, but they were believable to the extent of their being in a ghost story. The things that happened to these poor characters were not natural in any sense, but they were completely acceptable from within a ghost story. Miles, for example, was too beautiful in action, too simple in thought, and too tempting in appearance (for both the governess and Mr. Quint) to be considered real; however, he is not too extreme in any of those respects to not have the capacity for existing within a reader's mind. The same is true of Flora. Her childish innocence and elderly cunning create an ambiguous character that is capable of existing. (Is that not an ambiguity of its’ own?) As far as completely realistic and believable characters –... Free Essays on The Turn Of A Screw Free Essays on The Turn Of A Screw This novel was, surprisingly, in a way that was not all too completely unaware to me – for I could discern my own thoughts concerning the book – interesting. The intensely complex and intricate (if not confusing!) sentences, upon first thought, made me expect an experience of complete, utter, and total confusion; however, they served not only to keep my interest in the novel – for I had to concentrate to grasp the full, rich meaning of his thoughts – but also to create in me a sense of enjoyment, that of being enriched with the experiences of the main character so that my life and that character's became inseparable, only it occurred not only with the main character, but with the entire plot at once – all characters, all scenes (to which I shall come late), all conversations... everything. I have never seen a man so able to express so much in one sentence, and still be able to have the reader follow his thoughts throughout the entire process. Henr y James was a master of expression and grammar. His ability to form a complex, yet coherent sentence did nothing but add to the quality of the novel. The characters alone added to the quality of the novel. It is not so much as they were entirely believable, but they were believable to the extent of their being in a ghost story. The things that happened to these poor characters were not natural in any sense, but they were completely acceptable from within a ghost story. Miles, for example, was too beautiful in action, too simple in thought, and too tempting in appearance (for both the governess and Mr. Quint) to be considered real; however, he is not too extreme in any of those respects to not have the capacity for existing within a reader's mind. The same is true of Flora. Her childish innocence and elderly cunning create an ambiguous character that is capable of existing. (Is that not an ambiguity of its’ own?) As far as completely realistic and believable characters –...

Is genetic enhancement an unacceptable use of technology Article

Is genetic enhancement an unacceptable use of technology - Article Example Technology is making it possible for parents to choose the features that they would wish to see in their children by resorting to various modifications. In as much as the procedures are helping improve and advance life, there are concerns about the side effects that would accrue to such individuals. Just like medications that are used to treat various diseases, it is feared that the substances used for such modifications may have adverse effects on human beings and therefore tampering with their growth. The pressure to sue technology is taking a toll on many parents considering its wave. However, the procedure can only be used by few who can afford it considering its cost. This hence means tat there will be a big imbalance and a widening gap between the poor and the as the rich people find ways to make their children more productive and acceptable in the society (Loder, 2013). We may not able to prevent the wave that comes with technology, yet appreciating nature is vital.

Critical Appraisal 1 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Critical Appraisal 1 - Research Paper Example The major study concepts include: sleep loss (deprivation or disruption) and cognitive-behavioral outcomes such as decreased sleep duration, increased daytime sleepiness, decreased alertness/drowsiness (vigilance) and increased accidents/errors (nurse & patients). Variable Identification and Definitions Independent Variable: Fatigue Countermeasures Program for Nurses (FCMPN) Conceptual Definition: â€Å"The 60-minute education component of the FCMPN included information about fatigue, sleep, and circadian rhythms: neurobehavioral and health effects associated with sleep loss or deprivation; and misconceptions about sleepiness. Strategies for managing alertness, minimizing fatigue, and maximizing sleep duration and quality were highlighted †¦Ã¢â‚¬  The program is discussed in detail in Scott et al. (2010, p. 252) article. Operational Definition: â€Å"The underlying concept of most fatigue countermeasures programs is that fatigue management is a joint responsibility of the emp loying institution and each employee. Comprehensive programs to manage fatigue in work setting usually include the following six elements: (a) education and training, (b) compliance with hours of service regulation, (c) appropriate scheduling practices, (d) countermeasures that can be instituted in the work setting, (e) design (ergonometric) and technology (fail-safe designs), and (f) research† (Scott et al., 2010, p. 252). ... 254). Sleep Quality Conceptual Definition: Not conceptually defined but a likely definition is the weariness on waking and all through the day. Operational Definition: â€Å"Subjective quality of sleep was measured using the PSQI† (Scott et al., 2010, p. 253). Daytime Sleepiness Conceptual Definition: Not conceptually defined but indicates the tiredness in individuals due to lack of or disruptive sleep. Operational Definition: â€Å"The ESS (Johns, 1991) was used to evaluate the severity of daytime sleepiness† (Scott et al., 2010, p. 253). Vigilance Conceptual Definition: â€Å"It is the inability to remain alert during and after work† (Scott et al., 2010, p. 253). Operational Definition: â€Å"Measured by drowsiness and unplanned sleep episodes at work and while driving† (Scott et al., 2010, p. 253). Risk for Accidents and Errors Conceptual Definition: â€Å"Number of incidents of motor vehicle crashes (MVC)† (Scott et al., 2010, p. 255) and  "mistakes involving medication administration, patient care procedures, and transcript issues† (Scott et al., 2010, p. 256). Operational Definition: â€Å"Accident or error data was calculated using data from the participants’ daily logbooks† (Scott et al., 2010, p. 253). Short-Term Memory: Conceptual Definition: â€Å"Mistakes involving medication administration, patient care procedures, and transcript issues† (Scott et al., 2010, p. 256). Operational Definition: â€Å"Error description was calculated using data from the participants’ daily logbooks† (Scott et al., 2010, p. 253). Problem Solving and Coping Conceptual Definition: Not conceptually defined but a possible definition is the ability to intercept and discover errors. Operational Definition: â€Å"Error description was calculated using data